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Applications of MagRobots in targeted drug/gene delivery, cell manipulation, minimally invasive surgery, biopsy, biofilm disruption/eradication, imaging-guided delivery/therapy/surgery, pollution removal for environmental remediation, and (bio)sensing are also reviewed. Actuation mechanisms of flagella-inspired MagRobots (i.e., corkscrew-like motion and traveling-wave locomotion/ciliary stroke motion) and surface walkers (i.e., surface-assisted motion), applications of magnetic fields in other propulsion approaches, and magnetic stimulation of micro/nanorobots beyond motion are provided followed by fabrication techniques for (quasi-)spherical, helical, flexible, wire-like, and biohybrid MagRobots. These concepts are discussed to describe the interactions between micro/nanorobots and magnetic fields. This review introduces fundamental concepts and advantages of magnetic micro/nanorobots (termed here as “MagRobots”) as well as basic knowledge of magnetic fields and magnetic materials, setups for magnetic manipulation, magnetic field configurations, and symmetry-breaking strategies for effective movement. Many researchers have selected magnetic fields as the active external actuation source based on the advantageous features of this actuation strategy such as remote and spatiotemporal control, fuel-free, high degree of reconfigurability, programmability, recyclability, and versatility. Follow the steps for the task that you wish to perform.Manipulation and navigation of micro and nanoswimmers in different fluid environments can be achieved by chemicals, external fields, or even motile cells.
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(iii) Reconfigurability and programmability of magnetic materials: reconfigurability refers to the rearrangement of the swimmer’s features such as the morphology, locomotion mode, or other motion parameters upon the application of magnetic fields or other external stimuli. In addition, magnetic fields exhibit insignificant dependence on features and properties of surrounding environments and cause negligible damage to cells at low frequencies. This feature eliminates the harmful effects of toxic chemicals (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) on cells and tissues during their biological application processes. (ii) Fuel-Free: using a magnetic field for propulsion is a clean process that does not consume liquid fuel (unlike for chemically and photochemically propelled swimmers). Such a wireless actuation method allows for micro and nano agents to move in an untethered manner while keeping their local chemical environment intact. (i) Remote maneuverability: magnetic fields provide a noninvasive way to manipulate matter owing to the inherent contactless characteristics of magnetic forces.
(62,63) For example, the orientation of a magnetic composite-based structure can be programmed by suitably aligning the particles within the composite matrix. Programmability refers to the ability to manipulate the components of the MagRobots in terms of their shape, magnetic shape, magnetic anisotropy, (61) and crystalline anisotropy to achieve a specific motion mode, position, or orientation when magnetic fields are applied. This type of structure can readily change its shape by changing the conditions of the applied magnetic fields (i.e., frequency or magnitude).
(69−72) Stimuli can be various energy inputs such as chemical energy, electric energy, light, photochemical, electrochemical energy, or pH gradient. (65) Currently, various hybrid power sources, such as magneto-acoustic, (22,23,66) magneto-optical, (67) and magneto-chemotaxis, (68) have been reported, which provide dual propulsion modes in response to multiple stimuli.Molecular machines are molecular components capable of implementing mechanical locomotion (as output) in response to particular external stimuli (as input). (v) Versatility: by combining a magnetic field with other actuation sources, the transport and delivery of functional cargos (e.g., drugs or a single cell at the nanosize level) can be achieved with high maneuverability and sensitivity. Magnetic nano/microrobots, as they are composed of magnetic building blocks (i.e., coating, segment, particulates), allow for a feasible and convenient magnetically assisted retrieval and recycling process. (64) (iv) Recyclability of magnetic materials: after micro/nanorobots have completed their tasks, the separation and recycling of introduced foreign matter from water, biological fluids, or even tissues might be necessary in terms of biosafety and biocompatibility.
(87−89)Recent reviews about micro and nanorobots that focus on fabrication techniques, (51) geometric shapes (e.g., active particles, (90) Janus, (91) tubular, (92) hybrid actuators (81,93)), actuation sources (e.g., light, (48,49) magnetic field (94)), propulsion mechanisms, (82) and potential applications (e.g., cancer therapy (95)) provide us with a basic understanding and up-to-date developments in this multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary area. (53,84−86) To this end, swarms of micro/nanorobots can also be used for their imaging and positioning abilities. By contrast, larger micro- and nanorobots can provide greater feasibility for bioimaging for the applications in medical fields. (10,83) This requirement may limit the applicability of molecular machines due to their nanoscale (<10 nm) size being too small to be readily visualized using traditional imaging techniques. (78−82) In terms of practical uses, particularly for biomedical applications, the operator’s real-time imaging and tracking of the tiny robots are required when they are carrying out specific tasks inside the human body.
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